COVID-19 treatment: real-time analysis of 6,709 studies

COVID-19 treatment protocol efficacy
Dr. Pierre Kory
Kory
82—98%
 Dr. Paul Marik
Marik
82—98%
 Dr. Roger Seheult
Seheult
78—98%
 Dr. Mary Talley Bowden
Bowden
69—97%
 Dr. Tess Lawrie
Lawrie
68—95%
 Dr. Brian Procter
Procter
55—94%
 Dr. Peter McCullough
McCullough
67—93%
 Dr. Ramin Oskoui
Oskoui
66—93%
 Dr. Brian Tyson
Tyson
79—93%
 Dr. George Fareed
Fareed
79—93%
 Dr. Zev Zelenko
Zelenko
79—93%
 Dr. Anthony Fauci
Fauci
-26%
Estimated efficacy of early pandemic treatment protocols based on clinical results of the included treatments.
c19early.org
As with other viral infections, early treatment is more effective:
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Treatments show a wide range of efficacy and cost:
$0 $1,000 $2,000+ -25+% 0% 25% 50% Treatment cost (US$) Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments +59 more high-profit drugs PPIs -46% BMS mAbs -36% >$2,000 Darunavir -34% Acetaminophen -29% Cenicriviroc -28% >$2,000 Cannabidiol Lufotrelvir >$2,000 Losartan Sargramostim >$2,000 Dexamethasone Lopinavir/ritonavir Ravulizumab >$2,000 Remdesivir $3,120 Conv. Plasma $5,000 Sarilumab >$2,000 Ibuprofen Masks Molnupiravir mutagenic/teratogenic Aspirin Tocilizumab Favipiravir Paxlovid Ensitrelvir Ratutrelvir Famotidine Vitamin C Sotrovimab $2,100 Colchicine TMPRSS2 i.. NAC Amubarvimab/r.. Vilobelimab $6,350 Azvudine Budesonide Probiotics HCQ Tixagevimab/c.. Zinc Antiandro.. Sleep Metformin Vitamin A Melatonin Bebtelovimab Nitric Oxide Quercetin H1RAs CPC Vitamin D H. Peroxide Exercise Fluvox. Sunlight Curcumin NaHCO₃ N. Sativa Casirivimab/i.. $2,100 Bamlanivimab/e.. Ensovibep >$2,000 PVP-I pH+ Diet Regdanvimab $2,100 Thermotherapy Ivermectin Lifestyle / free No prescription Prescription required High-cost Lowerrisk Higherrisk c19early.org October 2026 USA official early treatments COVID-19 involves the interplay of 500+ host/viral proteins/factors, modulated by many treatments. 0.5% of 12,000+proposed treatments show efficacy with ≥3 studies.Protocols combine treatments, none are 100% effective.c19early analyzes over 6,700 studies for 226 treatments.
$0 $1,000 $2,000+ -20+% 0% 25% 50% Treatment cost (US$) Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments +59 more high-profit drugs PPIs -46% BMS mAbs -36% Acetaminophen -29% Cenicriviroc -28% CBD -23% Lufotrelvir -22% Losartan Sargramostim Dexame.. Lopinav.. Vit. B9 Ravulizumab Remdesivir C. Plasma Sarilumab Ibuprofen Masks Molnupiravir mutagenic/teratogenic Aspirin Tocilizumab Favipir.. Paxlovid Ensitrelvir Ratutrelvir Famotidine Vitamin C Sotrovimab Colchicine TMPRSS2 i.. NAC Amubarvimab/r.. Vilobelimab Azvudine Budesonide Probiotics HCQ Tixagev.. Zinc Antiandro.. Sleep Metformin Vitamin A Melatonin Bebtelovimab Nitric Oxide Quercetin H1RAs CPC Vitamin D H. Peroxide Exercise Fluvox. Sunlight Curcumin NaHCO₃ N. Sativa Casirivim.. Bamlan.. Ensovibep PVP-I pH+ Diet Regdanvimab Thermotherapy Ivermectin Lifestyle / free No prescription Prescription required High-cost Lowerrisk Higherrisk c19early.org October 2026 USA official early treatments COVID-19 involves the interplay of500+ host/viral proteins/factors. 0.5% of 12,000+ treatments showefficacy. Protocols combinetreatments. c19early analyzes6,700+ studies for 226 treatments.
Mainstream media suppressed low-cost treatments and favored high-profit treatments:
Media coverage was highly biased High-profit: preferred positive results Low-cost: preferred negative results c19early.org October 2026 Media coverage was highly biased High-profit: preferred positive results Low-cost: preferred negative results Media preferred to cover positive results for high-profit treatments. And negative/inconclusive results for low-cost treatments. Randomized trials only All studies 6.5× High-profit treatments 2.4× Low-cost treatments 3.3× High-profit treatments 2.3× Low-cost treatments 4× 2× equal 2× 4× 8× 16× ← more coverage when it failed more coverage when it worked → Many studies show lower risk with low-cost treatments 98% of these were not covered by the media Coverage of positive vs. negative/inconclusive results; whiskers are 95% confidence intervals. Data from Altmetric. Log scale. See: c19early.org/msm.html
Treatment protocols varied widely around the world:
Clinical evidence timeline:
Inhaled Heparin Cetylpyridinium Chloride Azelastine SA58 Azvudine Chlorpheniramine NaCl Tixagevimab/c.. Sodium Bicarbonate Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Quercetin Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Molnupiravir Famotidine Budesonide Diet Melatonin Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Tocilizumab H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Naso/oropharyngeal Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org October 2026 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Inhaled Heparin CPC Azelastine SA58 Azvudine Chlorpheniramine NaCl Tixagevimab/c.. Sodium Bicarb.. Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Quercetin Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Molnupiravir Famotidine Budesonide Diet Melatonin Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Tocilizumab H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Naso/oropharyngeal Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org October 2026 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Timeline for when studies showed efficacy - details and limitations. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
Treatment cost per life saved:
October 2026
c19early.org
Cost per life saved from NNT in
studies to date
Melatonin
10
33%
  $8
Alkalinization
9
46%
  $9
Vitamin D
79
39%
  $11
Zinc
18
35%
  $14
Vitamin C
44
19%
  $18
Naso/orophar..
2
88%
  $20
HCQ
252
27%
  $26
Ivermectin
54
47%
  $28
Vitamin A
4
46%
  $30
Colchicine
41
22%
  $36
Aspirin
68
8%
  $45
Curcumin
8
63%
  $59
Famotidine
20
17%
  $94
Metformin
75
36%
  $121
Quercetin
4
79%
  $123
Probiotics
10
59%
  $172
Antiandrogens
32
37%
  $179
Nigella Sativa
5
57%
  $187
Nitric Oxide
8
12%
  $363
Fluvoxamine
10
44%
  $411
Budesonide
11
25%
  $887
Inhaled Heparin
3
50%
  $1,111
Azvudine
30
30%
  $1,248
Favipiravir
40
6%
  $1,935
Tixagev../c..
11
32%
  $85,743
Regdanvimab
7
63%
  $139,860
Bamlaniv../e..
14
51%
  $343,149
Sotrovimab
15
47%
  $352,800
Casirivimab/..
11
19%
  $452,469
Bebtelovimab
4
60%
  $737,601
Paxlovid
43
21%
  $881,260
Molnupiravir
29
9%
  $2,400,867
Remdesivir
66
-1%
N/A
Conv. Plasma
56
-3%
N/A
Dexamethas..
13
-10%
N/A
Acetaminophen
14
-24%
N/A
PPIs
20
-40%
N/A
Sipavibart
2
-132%
N/A
Treatment cost times median NNT - details and limitations. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
All clinical results for selected treatments. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
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No effective intervention was widely adopted; excess mortality declined only after Omicron.
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Age-adjusted cumulativeexcess deaths per million Cumulative excess mortalityduring the COVID-19 pandemic c19early.org October 2026 2020 2021 2022 Omicron becamedominant worldwide Although available, noeffective interventionswere widely adopted Data from Our World in Data, see https://c19early.org/excess.html
Top journals with less bias against low-cost treatments:
Top journals that accept positive studies for low cost treatments: Nutrients, Scientific Reports, PLOS ONE, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, Frontiers in Medicine, Cureus, more...
c19early.org
October 2026

All studies (pooled effects, all stages)

TreatmentImprovementRR · 95% CIStudiesPatientsCostRelative Risk
Iota-carragee..80%0.20 · 0.05–0.781394$1very limited data Proxalutamide78%0.22 · 0.17–0.3041K$500limited data Indomethacin74%0.26 · 0.06–1.204605$5limited data Chlorhexidine70%0.30 · 0.21–0.425675$1limited data SA5867%0.33 · 0.13–0.8334K$700limited data Olgotrelvir67%0.33 · 0.01–8.1811K$1,000very limited data Mebendazole62%0.38 · 0.17–0.883411$1very limited data Ivermectin61%0.39 · 0.33–0.47106220K$1 Chlorphenira..56%0.44 · 0.36–0.543806$5very limited data Thermotherapy56%0.44 · 0.22–0.914217$0very limited data Regdanvimab55%0.45 · 0.28–0.70127K$2,100 SNS81252%0.48 · 0.30–0.77190$1,000very limited data Diet51%0.49 · 0.42–0.5830690K$0 HOCl50%0.50 · 0.19–1.323341$1very limited data Inhaled Heparin50%0.50 · 0.30–0.833493$100limited data Alkalinization49%0.51 · 0.41–0.64146K$1 HH-12049%0.51 · 0.16–1.602345$500very limited data Povidone-Iod..48%0.52 · 0.42–0.65212K$1 Ensovibep47%0.53 · 0.13–2.082885$2,100limited data Bamlaniv../e..46%0.54 · 0.39–0.762230K$1,250variant dependent Casirivimab/i..45%0.55 · 0.41–0.743450K$2,100variant dependent Resveratrol44%0.56 · 0.30–1.043360$1limited data Nigella Sativa44%0.56 · 0.43–0.73153K$5 Adintrevimab43%0.57 · 0.12–2.6922K$2,100intramuscular Bromhexine43%0.57 · 0.31–1.057875$5very limited data Sodium Bicar..43%0.57 · 0.42–0.7761K$1 Propolis41%0.59 · 0.31–1.133410$1very limited data Curcumin41%0.59 · 0.50–0.702815K$5 Sunlight39%0.61 · 0.50–0.74619K$0 Fluvoxamine39%0.61 · 0.47–0.782130K$4 Exercise39%0.61 · 0.56–0.67681M$0 Montelukast39%0.61 · 0.44–0.8692K$2limited data Hydrogen Per..39%0.61 · 0.40–0.948847$1very limited data Azelastine39%0.61 · 0.38–1.004760$5very limited data Vitamin D38%0.62 · 0.57–0.67138200K$1 Epigallocatechin Gallate38%0.62 · 0.43–0.9021K$5very limited data Cetylpyridin..38%0.62 · 0.45–0.854157$1limited data Phthalocyan..38%0.62 · 0.49–0.8045K$5 Xiannuoxin38%0.62 · 0.27–1.4621K$106very limited data H1RAs37%0.63 · 0.50–0.781770K$5 Sentinox37%0.63 · 0.12–3.38139$25very limited data Nitazoxanide36%0.64 · 0.39–1.04143K$4 Quercetin35%0.65 · 0.49–0.859841$5 Nitric Oxide35%0.65 · 0.46–0.91142K$11 Selenium34%0.66 · 0.31–1.40421K$1 Bebtelovimab34%0.66 · 0.35–1.24613K$1,200intravenous Artemisinin34%0.66 · 0.49–0.893217$1very limited data Melatonin34%0.66 · 0.58–0.761814K$1 Vitamin A33%0.67 · 0.51–0.881422K$2 Bemnifosbuvir32%0.68 · 0.27–1.7442K$500very limited data Metformin32%0.68 · 0.65–0.72114360K$10 Spironolactone31%0.69 · 0.56–0.851228K$5 Sleep31%0.69 · 0.62–0.7717430K$0 Antiandrogens30%0.70 · 0.62–0.7949120K$5 Nafamostat30%0.70 · 0.54–0.90716K$1very limited data Vitamin B1230%0.70 · 0.52–0.95411K$1 Zinc30%0.70 · 0.62–0.804050K$1 Tixagev../c..29%0.71 · 0.52–0.962030K$855variant dependent Inosine Pran..29%0.71 · 0.58–0.872414$50limited data Hydroxychlor..28%0.72 · 0.69–0.75424590K$1 Niclosamide28%0.72 · 0.57–0.9172K$50very limited data Probiotics27%0.73 · 0.64–0.822919K$5 Ibuzatrelvir27%0.73 · 0.62–0.851126$1,390very limited data Budesonide27%0.73 · 0.64–0.831528K$4 Andrograph..27%0.73 · 0.50–1.0871K$5 Azvudine27%0.73 · 0.67–0.814250K$25 Vilobelimab26%0.74 · 0.52–1.041368$6,350intravenous Amubarv../r..25%0.75 · 0.34–1.7041K$1,380intravenous N-acetylcys..24%0.76 · 0.68–0.852626K$1 Lactoferrin24%0.76 · 0.47–1.2481K$5 NaCl23%0.77 · 0.64–0.9191K$0 TMPRSS2 inh.23%0.77 · 0.67–0.902919K$5 Colchicine23%0.77 · 0.69–0.865430K$1 Sotrovimab22%0.78 · 0.68–0.902950K$2,100variant dependent Vitamin C21%0.79 · 0.73–0.867280K$1 Leritrelvir21%0.79 · 0.65–0.9721K$88very limited data UDCA18%0.82 · 0.64–1.032240K$15 Camostat18%0.82 · 0.66–1.02162K$1 Famotidine16%0.84 · 0.76–0.9329110K$5 Ratutrelvir14%0.86 · 0.76–0.97150$1,500very limited data Vitamin K14%0.86 · 0.75–1.0027K$1very limited data Atilotrelvir13%0.87 · 0.77–0.9911K$65very limited data Ensitrelvir12%0.88 · 0.78–0.99106K$1,400very limited data Paxlovid12%0.88 · 0.85–0.9289170K$1,390independent trials refused Deuremidevir11%0.89 · 0.79–1.0121K$112very limited data Favipiravir11%0.89 · 0.82–0.977430K$20worse w/longer followup Tocilizumab8%0.92 · 0.79–1.064721K$2,000 Aspirin8%0.92 · 0.87–0.9879180K$1 Molnupiravir5%0.95 · 0.88–1.0354180K$707mutagenic/teratogenic Empagliflozin4%0.96 · 0.84–1.1114K$300very limited data Masks2%0.98 · 0.76–1.254350K$5 Ibuprofen1%0.99 · 0.91–1.091450K$1 Acebilustat0%1.00 · 0.06–15.61120$2,000very limited data Levilimab0%1.00 · 0.26–3.891206$2,000subcutaneous Vidofludimus0%1.00 · 0.14–6.971220$2,000very limited data Verapamil0%1.00 · 0.21–4.791144$5very limited data iC1e/K0%1.00 · 0.07–13.9120$10,000intravenous Adalimumab0%1.00 · 0.27–3.68168$1,000very limited data Zunsemetinib0%1.00 · 0.07–13.9120$1,000very limited data Brilacidin0%1.00 · 0.26–3.811120$2,000intravenous Sarilumab0%1.00 · 0.83–1.21112K$2,000intravenous/subcutaneous Pomotrelvir−1%1.01 · 0.50–2.041230$1,390very limited data Elderberry−1%1.01 · 0.98–1.041171$25very limited data Conv. Plasma−2%1.02 · 0.98–1.065830K$5,000intravenous Vadadustat−3%1.03 · 0.56–1.891448$596very limited data Apremilast−3%1.03 · 0.75–1.422594$2,000limited data DFV890−3%1.03 · 0.41–2.591142$2,000very limited data Dimethyl fumarate−3%1.03 · 0.71–1.481713$20very limited data rhu-pGSN−3%1.03 · 0.16–6.87161$5,000intravenous Ropeginterferon alfa-2b−3%1.03 · 0.10–11.11132$10,000subcutaneous Remdesivir−4%1.04 · 0.96–1.1381200K$3,120worse w/longer followup Aviptadil−5%1.05 · 0.63–1.743775$1,000limited data Interleukin-2−5%1.05 · 0.81–1.36294$2,100intravenous Nicotine−5%1.05 · 0.74–1.501213$20very limited data Ravulizumab−5%1.05 · 0.76–1.452481$2,000intravenous HuMax-IL8−6%1.06 · 0.46–2.47143$10,000intravenous AER002−6%1.06 · 0.96–1.18136$2,000intravenous Lanadelumab−7%1.07 · 0.48–2.35155$10,000very limited data Vitamin B9−8%1.08 · 0.82–1.411250K$1 CK0802−8%1.08 · 0.33–3.57130$5,000intravenous Plasma-activ..−9%1.09 · 0.36–3.34123$100very limited data Ibrutinib−9%1.09 · 0.07–16.4146$9,000very limited data FX06−10%1.10 · 0.47–2.56149$10,000intravenous Diacerein−10%1.10 · 0.57–2.11114$10very limited data Razuprotafib−10%1.10 · 0.56–2.162134$2,000subcutaneous Gimsilumab−10%1.10 · 0.70–1.801225$2,000intravenous Iodine−10%1.10 · 0.55–2.211141$1very limited data Lopinavir/r..−11%1.11 · 0.96–1.281816K$50 Dexamethas..−11%1.11 · 0.96–1.281528K$1 Gabapentin−11%1.11 · 0.94–1.321129$10very limited data Dornase alfa−12%1.12 · 0.66–1.873242$2,000very limited data Sargramostim−13%1.13 · 0.69–1.854870$2,000very limited data Conestat alfa−14%1.14 · 0.08–15.42121$79,000intravenous Brexanolone−14%1.14 · 0.57–2.29128$34,000very limited data Losartan−15%1.15 · 0.71–1.8461K$5limited data Peg.. Lambda−15%1.15 · 0.64–2.0752K$500subcutaneous Efmarodocokin Alfa−15%1.15 · 0.59–2.111266$2,000intravenous Pentoxifylline−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.633178$50very limited data Dolutegravir−15%1.15 · 0.78–1.7121K$130intravenous Plitidepsin−16%1.16 · 0.29–4.562163$2,000intravenous MAS825−16%1.16 · 0.74–1.831138$5,000intravenous Trimodulin−17%1.17 · 0.63–2.161166$2,000intravenous Losmapimod−18%1.18 · 0.79–1.76148$2,000very limited data Amantadine−19%1.19 · 0.53–2.673527$10very limited data Silymarin−20%1.20 · 0.36–4.02150$5very limited data Metronidazole−20%1.20 · 0.19–7.77144$5very limited data Lufotrelvir−22%1.22 · 0.50–2.98158$2,000intravenous Defibrotide−23%1.23 · 0.66–2.271150$100,000intravenous Cannabidiol−23%1.23 · 0.78–1.951219K$25 Tenecteplase−25%1.25 · 0.15–10.5113$8,000intravenous Eritoran−26%1.26 · 0.43–3.74196$2,500intravenous Pacritinib−28%1.28 · 0.53–3.101200$2,000very limited data Cenicriviroc−28%1.28 · 0.99–1.6631K$2,000limited data Acetaminoph..−29%1.29 · 1.17–1.4128540K$1 Crizanlizumab−29%1.29 · 0.82–2.032463$2,500intravenous Voxvoganan−29%1.29 · 0.20–8.28123$200very limited data Cyproheptadine−30%1.30 · 0.73–2.332136$10very limited data Astegolimab−31%1.31 · 0.69–2.331264$2,000intravenous Alunacedase alfa−31%1.31 · 0.51–3.381178$2,000intravenous Belnacasan−34%1.34 · 0.78–2.29131$1,000very limited data Darunavir−34%1.34 · 0.82–2.2052K$40very limited data Tradipitant−36%1.36 · 0.70–2.611145$1,200very limited data BMS mAbs−36%1.36 · 0.31–5.921210$2,100subcutaneous Domperidone−36%1.36 · 0.83–2.231173$10very limited data Zansecimab−36%1.36 · 0.51–3.63195$2,000intravenous GPAT−38%1.38 · 1.05–1.811243$50very limited data Atovaquone−39%1.39 · 0.31–6.26160$50very limited data GB0139−40%1.40 · 0.36–5.49141$2,000very limited data Brensocatib−41%1.41 · 1.06–1.881404$2,000very limited data Danicopan−43%1.43 · 0.76–2.681201$2,000very limited data Fenretinide−44%1.44 · 0.71–2.931351$700very limited data XAV-19−45%1.45 · 0.65–3.212667$2,000intravenous PPIs−46%1.46 · 1.28–1.6740220K$5 Beta-glucans−49%1.49 · 0.24–9.23264$25very limited data Olokizumab−50%1.50 · 0.55–4.091248$2,000subcutaneous Ixekizumab−50%1.50 · 0.29–7.81132$5,000subcutaneous Edaravone−50%1.50 · 0.28–7.99138$5,000intravenous TRV027−54%1.54 · 0.78–3.022318$2,000intravenous Glenzocimab−60%1.60 · 0.76–3.36162$2,000intravenous Asapiprant−63%1.63 · 0.78–3.421194$1,000very limited data Siltuximab−64%1.64 · 0.77–3.521149$2,000intravenous rNAPc2−65%1.65 · 0.68–4.041156$3,000subcutaneous Avdoralimab−68%1.68 · 0.87–3.261207$2,000intravenous Cytokine Adsorption−72%1.72 · 0.46–6.45283$5,000very limited data SIR1-365−88%1.88 · 0.39–8.90142$1,000very limited data Zafirlukast−100%2.00 · 0.20–20.3140$5very limited data Obefazimod−101%2.01 · 0.23–17.81305$2,000very limited data Estetrol−102%2.02 · 0.52–7.831171$50very limited data Amiodarone−103%2.03 · 0.53–7.801143$10very limited data P2Et−114%2.14 · 0.20–22.7191$20very limited data BI 764198−117%2.17 · 0.80–5.881129$1,000very limited data Varespladib−120%2.20 · 0.11–44.5118$1,000very limited data Ebselen−130%2.30 · 0.42–12.6256$10very limited data Posaconazole−131%2.31 · 1.78–3.001249$2,000very limited data Sipavibart−132%2.32 · 1.02–5.2722K$2,000intramuscular Emvododstat−132%2.32 · 0.74–7.281187$2,000very limited data Dalcetrapib−134%2.34 · 0.10–56.61208$700very limited data Goflikicept−135%2.35 · 0.93–5.921247$2,000subcutaneous AZD5156−139%2.39 · 0.10–55.8157$2,000intramuscular Ramipril−144%2.44 · 0.10–58.51114$5very limited data Ensifentrine−150%2.50 · 0.11–57.9145$1,000very limited data YKYY017−150%2.50 · 0.10–60.81239$500very limited data Pemivibart−150%2.50 · 0.10–61.11477$5,775intravenous Donidalorsen−151%2.51 · 0.89–7.021103$2,000intravenous/subcutaneous MIB-626−156%2.56 · 0.11–59.0139$1,000very limited data Zavegepant−168%2.68 · 0.34–20.9143$1,100very limited data Tiprelestat−189%2.89 · 0.13–62.3117$2,000intravenous Mefenamic Acid−189%2.89 · 0.13–66.7136$50very limited data Apilimod−199%2.99 · 0.12–72.11141$700very limited data Baloxavir−200%3.00 · 0.14–65.9120$200very limited data Antroquinonol−200%3.00 · 0.12–72.31124$1,000very limited data Zenuzolac−200%3.00 · 0.32–28.3190$500very limited data Ammonium Chloride−202%3.02 · 0.57–16.11120$10very limited data Astodrimer Sodium−205%3.05 · 0.13–74.01197$10very limited data Brequinar−205%3.05 · 0.13–73.41115$700very limited data Hesperidin−209%3.09 · 0.33–29.21211$5very limited data Selinexor−286%3.86 · 0.89–16.91117$3,300very limited data Pegipanermin−290%3.90 · 0.46–33.3177$5,000subcutaneous Efzofitimod−291%3.91 · 0.20–74.7132$2,000very limited data LSALT peptide−407%5.07 · 0.25–101161$2,000intravenous Clevudine−744%8.44 · 0.49–146161$10very limited data
00.511.52+
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← treatment
reduces risktreatment
increases risk →
Random-effects meta-analysis of all studies (pooled effects, all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
c19early.org
October 2026

Early treatment studies (pooled effects)

TreatmentImprovementRR · 95% CIStudiesPatientsCostRelative Risk
Amubarv../r..91%0.09 · 0.01–0.701780$1,380intravenous Ensovibep89%0.11 · 0.01–2.271400$2,100very limited data Bromhexine84%0.16 · 0.02–1.352269$5very limited data Melatonin78%0.22 · 0.06–0.75291$1very limited data Spironolactone77%0.23 · 0.08–0.661270$5very limited data Alkalinization76%0.24 · 0.12–0.512233$1limited data Budesonide73%0.27 · 0.05–1.4532K$4very limited data Proxalutamide71%0.29 · 0.05–1.7531K$500very limited data Chlorhexidine69%0.31 · 0.16–0.603305$1limited data Mebendazole68%0.32 · 0.11–0.962254$1very limited data Aspirin67%0.33 · 0.01–7.961280$1very limited data Resveratrol67%0.33 · 0.04–3.101100$1very limited data Olgotrelvir67%0.33 · 0.01–8.1811K$1,000very limited data Hydroxychlor..66%0.34 · 0.25–0.453850K$1 Azelastine66%0.34 · 0.01–7.95159$5very limited data Ivermectin62%0.38 · 0.30–0.4839130K$1 Vitamin A62%0.38 · 0.14–1.033420$2limited data Povidone-Iod..60%0.40 · 0.29–0.57151K$1 Vitamin D56%0.44 · 0.30–0.631240K$1 H1RAs56%0.44 · 0.36–0.544865$5very limited data Chlorphenira..56%0.44 · 0.36–0.543806$5very limited data Regdanvimab54%0.46 · 0.29–0.73117K$2,100 SNS81252%0.48 · 0.30–0.77190$1,000very limited data Bamlaniv../e..52%0.48 · 0.30–0.771528K$1,250variant dependent Metformin51%0.49 · 0.24–1.0021K$10very limited data Fluvoxamine51%0.49 · 0.25–0.97125K$4 Nigella Sativa49%0.51 · 0.35–0.7481K$5 Famotidine48%0.52 · 0.20–1.32155$5very limited data Casirivimab/i..47%0.53 · 0.40–0.702240K$2,100variant dependent Artemisinin47%0.53 · 0.24–1.142174$1very limited data Lactoferrin47%0.53 · 0.39–0.733341$5very limited data Colchicine45%0.55 · 0.18–1.673138$1limited data Antiandrogens44%0.56 · 0.45–0.69628K$5 Nitric Oxide44%0.56 · 0.36–0.873697$11limited data Zinc41%0.59 · 0.39–0.9264K$1 Andrograph..40%0.60 · 0.44–0.824450$5very limited data Xiannuoxin38%0.62 · 0.27–1.4621K$106very limited data Cetylpyridin..37%0.63 · 0.45–0.863134$1limited data Sentinox37%0.63 · 0.12–3.38139$25very limited data Bebtelovimab34%0.66 · 0.35–1.24613K$1,200intravenous Probiotics34%0.66 · 0.57–0.767973$5 Vitamin C34%0.66 · 0.48–0.9061K$1 Nafamostat33%0.67 · 0.50–0.89129$1very limited data Nitazoxanide33%0.67 · 0.29–1.5682K$4 Hydrogen Per..33%0.67 · 0.42–1.064173$1very limited data Azvudine32%0.68 · 0.48–0.9794K$25 Quercetin32%0.68 · 0.50–0.934352$5limited data Niclosamide29%0.71 · 0.55–0.913324$50very limited data Phthalocyan..29%0.71 · 0.53–0.961134$5very limited data Inosine Pran..29%0.71 · 0.58–0.872414$50limited data Curcumin29%0.71 · 0.58–0.88121K$5 NaCl28%0.72 · 0.51–1.014559$0very limited data HOCl28%0.72 · 0.65–0.792178$1very limited data Ibuzatrelvir27%0.73 · 0.62–0.851126$1,390very limited data Sotrovimab26%0.74 · 0.63–0.872550K$2,100variant dependent Bemnifosbuvir21%0.79 · 0.31–2.0432K$500very limited data TMPRSS2 inh.21%0.79 · 0.66–0.96111K$5very limited data Leritrelvir21%0.79 · 0.65–0.9721K$88very limited data N-acetylcys..19%0.81 · 0.75–0.863556$1very limited data Favipiravir18%0.82 · 0.65–1.032214K$20worse w/longer followup Peg.. Lambda18%0.82 · 0.31–2.2132K$500subcutaneous Paxlovid16%0.84 · 0.80–0.8865120K$1,390independent trials refused Ratutrelvir14%0.86 · 0.76–0.97150$1,500very limited data Atilotrelvir13%0.87 · 0.77–0.9911K$65very limited data Ensitrelvir13%0.87 · 0.79–0.9784K$1,400very limited data Deuremidevir11%0.89 · 0.79–1.0121K$112very limited data Camostat8%0.92 · 0.71–1.1881K$1very limited data Ibuprofen6%0.94 · 0.45–1.943856$1limited data Molnupiravir4%0.96 · 0.85–1.0944120K$707mutagenic/teratogenic Acebilustat0%1.00 · 0.06–15.61120$2,000very limited data Pomotrelvir−1%1.01 · 0.50–2.041230$1,390very limited data XAV-19−1%1.01 · 0.30–3.401279$2,000intravenous Elderberry−1%1.01 · 0.98–1.041171$25very limited data Losartan−2%1.02 · 0.07–15.91117$5very limited data Ropeginterferon alfa-2b−3%1.03 · 0.10–11.11132$10,000subcutaneous Remdesivir−15%1.15 · 0.64–2.041015K$3,120worse w/longer followup Darunavir−22%1.22 · 0.53–2.78130$40very limited data Acetaminoph..−23%1.23 · 1.07–1.4161K$1 Tixagev../c..−29%1.29 · 0.42–3.9521K$855variant dependent Voxvoganan−29%1.29 · 0.20–8.28123$200very limited data Belnacasan−34%1.34 · 0.78–2.29131$1,000very limited data BMS mAbs−36%1.36 · 0.31–5.921210$2,100subcutaneous Domperidone−36%1.36 · 0.83–2.231173$10very limited data Conv. Plasma−37%1.37 · 0.55–3.4271K$5,000intravenous GPAT−38%1.38 · 1.05–1.811243$50very limited data Glenzocimab−60%1.60 · 0.76–3.36162$2,000intravenous Lopinavir/r..−95%1.95 · 1.45–2.6342K$50very limited data Dalcetrapib−134%2.34 · 0.10–56.61208$700very limited data YKYY017−150%2.50 · 0.10–60.81239$500very limited data Mefenamic Acid−189%2.89 · 0.13–66.7136$50very limited data Apilimod−199%2.99 · 0.12–72.11141$700very limited data Astodrimer Sodium−205%3.05 · 0.13–74.01197$10very limited data Brequinar−205%3.05 · 0.13–73.41115$700very limited data Hesperidin−209%3.09 · 0.33–29.21211$5very limited data Beta-glucans−222%3.22 · 0.14–74.6140$25very limited data Dexamethas..−300%4.00 · 0.27–58.216$1very limited data
00.511.52+
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← treatment
reduces risktreatment
increases risk →
Random-effects meta-analysis of early treatment studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
c19early.org
October 2026

All mortality results (all stages)

TreatmentImprovementRR · 95% CIStudiesPatientsCostRelative Risk
Povidone-Iod..88%0.12 · 0.03–0.501606$1very limited data Propolis86%0.14 · 0.01–2.721140$1very limited data Phthalocyan..85%0.15 · 0.01–2.66141$5very limited data Quercetin79%0.21 · 0.05–0.964361$5very limited data Proxalutamide78%0.22 · 0.17–0.3041K$500limited data Bromhexine77%0.23 · 0.04–1.393550$5very limited data Hydrogen Per..75%0.25 · 0.04–1.422132$1very limited data Montelukast64%0.36 · 0.04–3.492255$2very limited data Regdanvimab63%0.37 · 0.21–0.6373K$2,100 Curcumin63%0.37 · 0.22–0.648714$5 Bebtelovimab60%0.40 · 0.14–1.11412K$1,200intravenous Probiotics59%0.41 · 0.26–0.65101K$5 Nigella Sativa57%0.43 · 0.15–1.2051K$5 Camostat52%0.48 · 0.28–0.8181K$1 Bamlaniv../e..51%0.49 · 0.26–0.911430K$1,250variant dependent Mebendazole51%0.49 · 0.14–1.781157$1very limited data Inhaled Heparin50%0.50 · 0.30–0.833493$100limited data Exercise49%0.51 · 0.43–0.62191M$0 Ensovibep47%0.53 · 0.13–2.082885$2,100limited data Ivermectin47%0.53 · 0.42–0.6654120K$1 Sotrovimab47%0.53 · 0.31–0.921521K$2,100variant dependent Inosine Pran..46%0.54 · 0.25–1.1610$50very limited data Alkalinization46%0.54 · 0.41–0.7295K$1 Vitamin A46%0.54 · 0.08–3.774371$2 Resveratrol44%0.56 · 0.26–1.021230$1very limited data Fluvoxamine44%0.56 · 0.37–0.85105K$4 Adintrevimab43%0.57 · 0.12–2.6922K$2,100intramuscular Thermotherapy43%0.57 · 0.22–1.451105$0very limited data Nitazoxanide42%0.58 · 0.27–1.2461K$4limited data Sodium Bicar..41%0.59 · 0.37–0.944898$1limited data Sunlight41%0.59 · 0.49–0.7220$0very limited data Vitamin D39%0.61 · 0.55–0.687960K$1 H1RAs38%0.62 · 0.46–0.84770K$5 Antiandrogens37%0.63 · 0.50–0.7932110K$5 TMPRSS2 inh.37%0.63 · 0.43–0.931517K$5 Metformin36%0.64 · 0.60–0.6875260K$10 Selenium35%0.65 · 0.11–3.731122$1very limited data Zinc35%0.65 · 0.51–0.831813K$1 Vitamin B1234%0.66 · 0.30–1.4419K$1very limited data Melatonin33%0.67 · 0.56–0.81102K$1 Tixagev../c..32%0.68 · 0.44–1.071118K$855variant dependent N-acetylcys..31%0.69 · 0.55–0.852125K$1 Azvudine30%0.70 · 0.61–0.793050K$25 Spironolactone30%0.70 · 0.60–0.82425K$5 Peg.. Lambda27%0.73 · 0.21–2.5811K$500subcutaneous Sleep27%0.73 · 0.60–0.904380K$0limited data Hydroxychlor..27%0.73 · 0.69–0.78252430K$1 NaCl26%0.74 · 0.53–1.03194$0very limited data Vilobelimab26%0.74 · 0.52–1.041368$6,350intravenous Budesonide25%0.75 · 0.65–0.861119K$4 Amubarv../r..25%0.75 · 0.34–1.7041K$1,380intravenous Bemnifosbuvir23%0.77 · 0.04–14.922K$500very limited data Colchicine22%0.78 · 0.69–0.884129K$1 Paxlovid21%0.79 · 0.71–0.8943110K$1,390independent trials refused Diet20%0.80 · 0.56–1.153360K$0limited data Casirivimab/i..19%0.81 · 0.55–1.181130K$2,100variant dependent Sargramostim19%0.81 · 0.36–1.832203$2,000very limited data Vitamin C19%0.81 · 0.73–0.914440K$1 Cannabidiol18%0.82 · 0.44–1.52615K$25 Famotidine17%0.83 · 0.74–0.922080K$5 Lactoferrin17%0.83 · 0.27–2.613921$5limited data Aviptadil16%0.84 · 0.52–1.352657$1,000limited data Niclosamide12%0.88 · 0.33–2.3831K$50very limited data Nitric Oxide12%0.88 · 0.75–1.048910$11 Molnupiravir9%0.91 · 0.81–1.0229150K$707mutagenic/teratogenic Aspirin8%0.92 · 0.86–0.9868160K$1 UDCA7%0.93 · 0.70–1.24930K$15 Tocilizumab6%0.94 · 0.81–1.094520K$2,000 Favipiravir6%0.94 · 0.82–1.074029K$20worse w/longer followup Nafamostat4%0.96 · 0.53–1.73516K$1very limited data Empagliflozin4%0.96 · 0.84–1.1114K$300very limited data Levilimab0%1.00 · 0.26–3.891206$2,000subcutaneous Vidofludimus0%1.00 · 0.14–6.971220$2,000very limited data Verapamil0%1.00 · 0.21–4.791144$5very limited data iC1e/K0%1.00 · 0.07–13.9120$10,000intravenous Adalimumab0%1.00 · 0.27–3.68168$1,000very limited data Zunsemetinib0%1.00 · 0.07–13.9120$1,000very limited data Brilacidin0%1.00 · 0.26–3.811120$2,000intravenous Amantadine0%1.00 · 0.37–2.712285$10very limited data Sarilumab0%1.00 · 0.83–1.21112K$2,000intravenous/subcutaneous Remdesivir−1%1.01 · 0.92–1.1166190K$3,120worse w/longer followup Ibuprofen−2%1.02 · 0.83–1.26850K$1 Conv. Plasma−3%1.03 · 0.98–1.075630K$5,000intravenous Vadadustat−3%1.03 · 0.56–1.891448$596very limited data Apremilast−3%1.03 · 0.75–1.422594$2,000limited data DFV890−3%1.03 · 0.41–2.591142$2,000very limited data Dimethyl fumarate−3%1.03 · 0.71–1.481713$20very limited data rhu-pGSN−3%1.03 · 0.16–6.87161$5,000intravenous Ropeginterferon alfa-2b−3%1.03 · 0.10–11.11132$10,000subcutaneous Lopinavir/r..−4%1.04 · 0.93–1.15813K$50 Nicotine−5%1.05 · 0.74–1.501213$20very limited data Ravulizumab−5%1.05 · 0.76–1.452481$2,000intravenous HuMax-IL8−6%1.06 · 0.46–2.47143$10,000intravenous Lanadelumab−7%1.07 · 0.48–2.35155$10,000very limited data CK0802−8%1.08 · 0.33–3.57130$5,000intravenous Ibrutinib−9%1.09 · 0.07–16.4146$9,000very limited data FX06−10%1.10 · 0.47–2.56149$10,000intravenous Razuprotafib−10%1.10 · 0.56–2.162134$2,000subcutaneous Gimsilumab−10%1.10 · 0.70–1.801225$2,000intravenous Dexamethas..−10%1.10 · 0.96–1.271328K$1 Iodine−10%1.10 · 0.55–2.211141$1very limited data Dornase alfa−12%1.12 · 0.66–1.873242$2,000very limited data Conestat alfa−14%1.14 · 0.08–15.42121$79,000intravenous Brexanolone−14%1.14 · 0.57–2.29128$34,000very limited data Efmarodocokin Alfa−15%1.15 · 0.59–2.111266$2,000intravenous Losartan−15%1.15 · 0.71–1.865889$5 Pentoxifylline−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.633178$50very limited data Plitidepsin−16%1.16 · 0.29–4.562163$2,000intravenous MAS825−16%1.16 · 0.74–1.831138$5,000intravenous Trimodulin−17%1.17 · 0.63–2.161166$2,000intravenous Lufotrelvir−22%1.22 · 0.50–2.98158$2,000intravenous Defibrotide−23%1.23 · 0.66–2.271150$100,000intravenous Acetaminoph..−24%1.24 · 1.09–1.4014140K$1 Tenecteplase−25%1.25 · 0.15–10.5113$8,000intravenous Eritoran−26%1.26 · 0.43–3.74196$2,500intravenous Ensitrelvir−27%1.27 · 0.67–2.4032K$1,400limited data Pacritinib−28%1.28 · 0.53–3.101200$2,000very limited data Cenicriviroc−28%1.28 · 0.99–1.6631K$2,000limited data Cyproheptadine−30%1.30 · 0.73–2.332136$10very limited data Astegolimab−31%1.31 · 0.69–2.331264$2,000intravenous Alunacedase alfa−31%1.31 · 0.51–3.381178$2,000intravenous Crizanlizumab−33%1.33 · 0.85–2.211421$2,500intravenous Darunavir−34%1.34 · 0.76–2.3842K$40limited data Tradipitant−36%1.36 · 0.70–2.611145$1,200very limited data Zansecimab−36%1.36 · 0.51–3.63195$2,000intravenous Atovaquone−39%1.39 · 0.31–6.26160$50very limited data PPIs−40%1.40 · 1.17–1.672050K$5 GB0139−40%1.40 · 0.36–5.49141$2,000very limited data Brensocatib−41%1.41 · 1.06–1.881404$2,000very limited data Danicopan−43%1.43 · 0.76–2.681201$2,000very limited data Fenretinide−44%1.44 · 0.71–2.931351$700very limited data XAV-19−45%1.45 · 0.65–3.212667$2,000intravenous Olokizumab−50%1.50 · 0.55–4.091248$2,000subcutaneous Ixekizumab−50%1.50 · 0.29–7.81132$5,000subcutaneous Edaravone−50%1.50 · 0.28–7.99138$5,000intravenous Vitamin B9−53%1.53 · 0.98–2.40630K$1very limited data TRV027−54%1.54 · 0.78–3.022318$2,000intravenous Asapiprant−63%1.63 · 0.78–3.421194$1,000very limited data Siltuximab−64%1.64 · 0.77–3.521149$2,000intravenous rNAPc2−65%1.65 · 0.68–4.041156$3,000subcutaneous Avdoralimab−68%1.68 · 0.87–3.261207$2,000intravenous Interleukin-2−71%1.71 · 0.33–8.83130$2,100intravenous Cytokine Adsorption−72%1.72 · 0.46–6.45283$5,000very limited data Obefazimod−101%2.01 · 0.23–17.81305$2,000very limited data Estetrol−102%2.02 · 0.52–7.831171$50very limited data Amiodarone−103%2.03 · 0.53–7.801143$10very limited data P2Et−114%2.14 · 0.20–22.7191$20very limited data BI 764198−117%2.17 · 0.80–5.881129$1,000very limited data Varespladib−120%2.20 · 0.11–44.5118$1,000very limited data Ebselen−130%2.30 · 0.42–12.6256$10very limited data Posaconazole−131%2.31 · 1.78–3.001249$2,000very limited data Sipavibart−132%2.32 · 1.02–5.2722K$2,000intramuscular Emvododstat−132%2.32 · 0.74–7.281187$2,000very limited data Dalcetrapib−134%2.34 · 0.10–56.61208$700very limited data Goflikicept−135%2.35 · 0.93–5.921247$2,000subcutaneous AZD5156−139%2.39 · 0.10–55.8157$2,000intramuscular Ramipril−144%2.44 · 0.10–58.51114$5very limited data Ensifentrine−150%2.50 · 0.11–57.9145$1,000very limited data Pemivibart−150%2.50 · 0.10–61.11477$5,775intravenous Donidalorsen−151%2.51 · 0.89–7.021103$2,000intravenous/subcutaneous MIB-626−156%2.56 · 0.11–59.0139$1,000very limited data Zavegepant−168%2.68 · 0.34–20.9143$1,100very limited data Tiprelestat−189%2.89 · 0.13–62.3117$2,000intravenous Apilimod−199%2.99 · 0.12–72.11141$700very limited data Vitamin K−200%3.00 · 0.13–69.5140$1very limited data Zenuzolac−200%3.00 · 0.32–28.3190$500very limited data Ammonium Chloride−202%3.02 · 0.57–16.11120$10very limited data Dolutegravir−202%3.02 · 0.13–72.3193$130intravenous Beta-glucans−222%3.22 · 0.14–74.6140$25very limited data Selinexor−286%3.86 · 0.89–16.91117$3,300very limited data Pegipanermin−290%3.90 · 0.46–33.3177$5,000subcutaneous Efzofitimod−291%3.91 · 0.20–74.7132$2,000very limited data LSALT peptide−407%5.07 · 0.25–101161$2,000intravenous
00.511.52+
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← treatment
reduces risktreatment
increases risk →
Random-effects meta-analysis of all mortality results (all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages depend on the distribution of stages tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
c19early.org
October 2026

Early treatment mortality results

TreatmentImprovementRR · 95% CIStudiesPatientsCostRelative Risk
Bromhexine91%0.09 · 0.01–1.59178$5very limited data Amubarv../r..91%0.09 · 0.01–0.701780$1,380intravenous Ensovibep89%0.11 · 0.01–2.271400$2,100very limited data Povidone-Iod..88%0.12 · 0.03–0.501606$1very limited data Nigella Sativa87%0.13 · 0.04–0.492732$5limited data Vitamin A86%0.14 · 0.03–0.611140$2very limited data Hydrogen Per..86%0.14 · 0.01–2.69192$1very limited data Curcumin84%0.16 · 0.04–0.612314$5limited data Quercetin79%0.21 · 0.02–1.832252$5very limited data Hydroxychlor..76%0.24 · 0.15–0.391750K$1 Sotrovimab73%0.27 · 0.18–0.391118K$2,100variant dependent Fluvoxamine71%0.29 · 0.05–1.5243K$4very limited data Proxalutamide71%0.29 · 0.05–1.7531K$500very limited data Casirivimab/i..68%0.32 · 0.11–0.89620K$2,100variant dependent Colchicine68%0.32 · 0.15–0.6710$1very limited data Probiotics67%0.33 · 0.01–8.161350$5very limited data Bamlaniv../e..64%0.36 · 0.15–0.88927K$1,250variant dependent Regdanvimab62%0.38 · 0.22–0.6663K$2,100 Vitamin D62%0.38 · 0.23–0.65640K$1 Bebtelovimab60%0.40 · 0.14–1.11412K$1,200intravenous TMPRSS2 inh.56%0.44 · 0.02–11.42373$5very limited data Azvudine52%0.48 · 0.30–0.7853K$25very limited data Zinc50%0.50 · 0.37–0.6733K$1limited data Inosine Pran..46%0.54 · 0.25–1.1610$50very limited data Favipiravir42%0.58 · 0.28–1.22510K$20worse w/longer followup Nitazoxanide41%0.59 · 0.02–13.82873$4very limited data Antiandrogens39%0.61 · 0.52–0.71427K$5 Ivermectin37%0.63 · 0.43–0.921450K$1 Paxlovid35%0.65 · 0.55–0.772760K$1,390independent trials refused Ensitrelvir28%0.72 · 0.14–3.7822K$1,400very limited data Peg.. Lambda27%0.73 · 0.21–2.5811K$500subcutaneous Molnupiravir10%0.90 · 0.72–1.1222100K$707mutagenic/teratogenic Metformin3%0.97 · 0.06–15.51804$10very limited data XAV-19−1%1.01 · 0.30–3.401279$2,000intravenous Ropeginterferon alfa-2b−3%1.03 · 0.10–11.11132$10,000subcutaneous Conv. Plasma−19%1.19 · 0.45–3.1861K$5,000intravenous Tixagev../c..−29%1.29 · 0.42–3.9521K$855variant dependent Ibuprofen−52%1.52 · 0.52–4.512800$1limited data Remdesivir−76%1.76 · 0.21–15.1214K$3,120worse w/longer followup Acetaminoph..−127%2.27 · 0.59–8.752637$1very limited data Dalcetrapib−134%2.34 · 0.10–56.61208$700very limited data Camostat−152%2.52 · 0.10–61.31295$1very limited data Apilimod−199%2.99 · 0.12–72.11141$700very limited data Budesonide−200%3.00 · 0.12–73.511K$4very limited data Bemnifosbuvir−202%3.02 · 0.32–29.012K$500very limited data Lactoferrin−203%3.03 · 0.13–73.21156$5very limited data Vitamin C−204%3.04 · 0.13–72.9198$1very limited data Beta-glucans−222%3.22 · 0.14–74.6140$25very limited data
00.511.52+
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← treatment
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Random-effects meta-analysis of early treatment mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
c19early.org
October 2026

Prophylaxis studies (pooled effects)

TreatmentImprovementRR · 95% CIStudiesPatientsCostRelative Risk
Hydrogen Per..93%0.07 · 0.00–1.131466$1very limited data Quercetin93%0.07 · 0.01–0.911120$5very limited data HOCl91%0.09 · 0.01–0.721163$1very limited data Ivermectin84%0.16 · 0.11–0.251819K$1 Iota-carragee..80%0.20 · 0.05–0.781394$1very limited data HH-12076%0.24 · 0.07–0.811177$500very limited data Nitric Oxide75%0.25 · 0.14–0.431625$11very limited data Casirivimab/i..72%0.28 · 0.07–1.0863K$2,100variant dependent SA5867%0.33 · 0.13–0.8334K$700limited data Epigallocatechin Gallate67%0.33 · 0.01–8.1511K$5very limited data Paxlovid67%0.33 · 0.01–8.2011K$1,390independent trials refused Sotrovimab66%0.34 · 0.01–8.201588$2,100variant dependent Bromhexine65%0.35 · 0.04–3.122422$5very limited data Montelukast64%0.36 · 0.04–3.1521K$2very limited data Chlorhexidine61%0.39 · 0.16–0.97176$1very limited data Bamlaniv../e..57%0.43 · 0.28–0.671965$1,250variant dependent Phthalocyan..54%0.46 · 0.20–1.0815K$5very limited data Azelastine53%0.47 · 0.27–0.812450$5very limited data Diet51%0.49 · 0.42–0.5830690K$0 Favipiravir50%0.50 · 0.16–1.601168$20worse w/longer followup Nigella Sativa46%0.54 · 0.35–0.854907$5 Alkalinization45%0.55 · 0.24–1.22180$1very limited data Povidone-Iod..45%0.55 · 0.38–0.8011K$1very limited data Nitazoxanide44%0.56 · 0.35–0.902531$4very limited data Adintrevimab43%0.57 · 0.12–2.6922K$2,100intramuscular Sunlight41%0.59 · 0.47–0.74519K$0 Exercise39%0.61 · 0.56–0.67671M$0 Melatonin38%0.62 · 0.36–1.06311K$1limited data Probiotics37%0.63 · 0.45–0.881017K$5 Curcumin36%0.64 · 0.45–0.89312K$5limited data Selenium36%0.64 · 0.26–1.59321K$1limited data Tixagev../c..36%0.64 · 0.43–0.971529K$855variant dependent H1RAs35%0.65 · 0.49–0.861070K$5 NaCl35%0.65 · 0.49–0.861438$0very limited data Hydroxychlor..35%0.65 · 0.59–0.73110190K$1 Vitamin D32%0.68 · 0.61–0.7565140K$1 Vitamin A31%0.69 · 0.55–0.88621K$2 Sleep31%0.69 · 0.62–0.7717430K$0 Metformin28%0.72 · 0.68–0.75101300K$10 N-acetylcys..28%0.72 · 0.66–0.7910$1very limited data Fluvoxamine27%0.73 · 0.65–0.82529K$4 Budesonide27%0.73 · 0.63–0.85423K$4 Vitamin B1226%0.74 · 0.54–1.02211K$1limited data Molnupiravir24%0.76 · 0.57–1.0111K$707mutagenic/teratogenic Zinc23%0.77 · 0.63–0.941530K$1 Vitamin C19%0.81 · 0.70–0.941760K$1 UDCA17%0.83 · 0.65–1.062140K$15 Famotidine16%0.84 · 0.73–0.961260K$5 Vitamin K14%0.86 · 0.74–0.9917K$1very limited data TMPRSS2 inh.13%0.87 · 0.31–2.473422$5limited data Spironolactone13%0.87 · 0.63–1.21527K$5 Colchicine12%0.88 · 0.64–1.2193K$1 Antiandrogens7%0.93 · 0.84–1.032580K$5 Aspirin4%0.96 · 0.88–1.0643140K$1 Masks2%0.98 · 0.76–1.254350K$5 Niclosamide0%1.00 · 0.14–7.0711K$50very limited data Ibuprofen−1%1.01 · 0.92–1.101050K$1 Vitamin B9−8%1.08 · 0.82–1.411250K$1 Dolutegravir−14%1.14 · 0.75–1.7211K$130intravenous Camostat−14%1.14 · 0.31–4.1810$1very limited data Acetaminoph..−21%1.21 · 1.08–1.3714530K$1 Cannabidiol−28%1.28 · 0.79–2.06918K$25 PPIs−34%1.34 · 1.19–1.5137220K$5 Lactoferrin−36%1.36 · 0.58–3.182259$5very limited data Posaconazole−131%2.31 · 1.78–3.001249$2,000very limited data Sipavibart−132%2.32 · 1.02–5.2722K$2,000intramuscular AZD5156−139%2.39 · 0.10–55.8157$2,000intramuscular Pemivibart−150%2.50 · 0.10–61.11477$5,775intravenous Conv. Plasma−224%3.24 · 1.03–10.2172$5,000intravenous Ensitrelvir−396%4.96 · 0.24–10312K$1,400very limited data Lopinavir/r..−630%7.30 · 0.97–54.81318$50very limited data
00.511.52+
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← treatment
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increases risk →
Random-effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
c19early.org
October 2026

Prophylaxis mortality results

TreatmentImprovementRR · 95% CIStudiesPatientsCostRelative Risk
Ivermectin90%0.10 · 0.02–0.5039K$1limited data Zinc68%0.32 · 0.01–7.871200$1very limited data Sotrovimab66%0.34 · 0.01–8.201588$2,100variant dependent Nitazoxanide66%0.34 · 0.01–8.411505$4very limited data Tixagev../c..55%0.45 · 0.17–1.22715K$855variant dependent Exercise49%0.51 · 0.42–0.62181M$0 Adintrevimab43%0.57 · 0.12–2.6922K$2,100intramuscular Sunlight41%0.59 · 0.49–0.7220$0very limited data H1RAs40%0.60 · 0.43–0.84670K$5 Vitamin B1234%0.66 · 0.30–1.4419K$1very limited data Metformin33%0.67 · 0.62–0.7166210K$10 Bromhexine33%0.67 · 0.04–10.51372$5very limited data TMPRSS2 inh.33%0.67 · 0.04–10.51372$5very limited data Budesonide32%0.68 · 0.46–1.00215K$4very limited data Hydroxychlor..31%0.69 · 0.56–0.852360K$1 Vitamin C29%0.71 · 0.58–0.87225K$1very limited data Sleep27%0.73 · 0.60–0.904380K$0limited data Vitamin D23%0.77 · 0.66–0.912110K$1 Diet20%0.80 · 0.56–1.153360K$0limited data Spironolactone18%0.82 · 0.71–0.93125K$5very limited data Colchicine18%0.82 · 0.46–1.464590$1 Famotidine15%0.85 · 0.71–1.04640K$5 Cannabidiol8%0.92 · 0.48–1.75414K$25 UDCA7%0.93 · 0.70–1.24930K$15 Antiandrogens7%0.93 · 0.78–1.121480K$5 Fluvoxamine5%0.95 · 0.51–1.763176$4limited data Aspirin3%0.97 · 0.87–1.0834120K$1 Niclosamide0%1.00 · 0.14–7.0711K$50very limited data Ibuprofen0%1.00 · 0.81–1.25640K$1 Probiotics−2%1.02 · 0.06–16.11198$5very limited data Acetaminoph..−21%1.21 · 1.05–1.418130K$1 PPIs−37%1.37 · 1.14–1.641950K$5 Vitamin B9−53%1.53 · 0.98–2.40630K$1very limited data Posaconazole−131%2.31 · 1.78–3.001249$2,000very limited data Sipavibart−132%2.32 · 1.02–5.2722K$2,000intramuscular AZD5156−139%2.39 · 0.10–55.8157$2,000intramuscular Pemivibart−150%2.50 · 0.10–61.11477$5,775intravenous Conv. Plasma−224%3.24 · 1.03–10.2172$5,000intravenous
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Random-effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
c19early.org
October 2026

Long COVID results

TreatmentImprovementRR · 95% CIStudiesPatientsCostRelative Risk
Vitamin A75%0.25 · 0.06–0.99117$2very limited data Chlorphenira..74%0.26 · 0.12–0.581101$5very limited data Probiotics68%0.32 · 0.13–0.78169$5very limited data Ivermectin56%0.44 · 0.18–1.0423K$1very limited data H1RAs54%0.46 · 0.18–1.222128$5very limited data Nigella Sativa42%0.58 · 0.33–1.041106$5very limited data Fluvoxamine40%0.60 · 0.53–0.681498$4very limited data Vitamin D40%0.60 · 0.27–1.3531K$1very limited data Zinc32%0.68 · 0.45–1.032444$1very limited data Hydrogen Per..31%0.69 · 0.24–1.95186$1very limited data Sleep30%0.70 · 0.58–0.85570K$0very limited data Metformin28%0.72 · 0.59–0.88918K$10 Hydroxychlor..18%0.82 · 0.61–1.113878$1limited data Exercise15%0.85 · 0.81–0.90670K$0 Favipiravir14%0.86 · 0.64–1.171802$20worse w/longer followup Vitamin C12%0.88 · 0.19–4.02162$1very limited data Diet9%0.91 · 0.72–1.141798$0very limited data Lactoferrin8%0.92 · 0.50–1.711133$5very limited data Sotrovimab4%0.96 · 0.94–0.9910$2,100variant dependent Molnupiravir4%0.96 · 0.94–0.982567$707mutagenic/teratogenic Paxlovid2%0.98 · 0.94–1.031125K$1,390independent trials refused Ensovibep−1%1.01 · 0.82–1.241327$2,100very limited data Ensitrelvir−2%1.02 · 0.88–1.1912K$1,400very limited data Conv. Plasma−3%1.03 · 0.84–1.2721K$5,000intravenous AER002−6%1.06 · 0.96–1.18136$2,000intravenous Amubarv../r..−20%1.20 · 0.83–1.751780$1,380intravenous Remdesivir−23%1.23 · 0.78–1.9511K$3,120worse w/longer followup Azvudine−24%1.24 · 0.49–3.1610$25very limited data Acetaminoph..−29%1.29 · 0.99–1.672434$1limited data
00.511.52+
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← treatment
reduces risktreatment
increases risk →
Random-effects meta-analysis of long covid results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
Random-effects meta-analysis of transmission results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
LATE TREATMENT
Physician / TeamLocationPatients HospitalizationHosp. MortalityDeath
Dr. David Uip (*) Brazil 2,200 38.6% (850) 2.5% (54)
Dr. Jake Scott (**) USA 1,000 10.0% (100)
Average 38.6% 6.2%
EARLY TREATMENT PROTOCOLS - 40 physicians/teams
Physician / TeamLocationPatients HospitalizationHosp. MortalityDeath
Dr. Roberto Alfonso Accinelli
0/360 deaths for treatment within 3 days		 Peru 1,265 0.6% (7)
Dr. Mohammed Tarek Alam
patients up to 84 years old		 Bangladesh 100 0.0% (0)
Dr. Oluwagbenga Alonge Nigeria 310 0.0% (0)
Dr. Raja Bhattacharya
up to 88yo, 81% comorbidities		 India 148 1.4% (2)
Dr. Flavio Cadegiani Brazil 3,450 0.1% (4) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Alessandro Capucci Italy 350 4.6% (16)
Dr. Shankara Chetty South Africa 8,000 0.0% (0)
Dr. Deborah Chisholm USA 100 0.0% (0)
Dr. Ryan Cole USA 400 0.0% (0) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Marco Cosentino
earlier treatment results were better		 Italy 392 6.4% (25) 0.3% (1)
Dr. Jeff Davis USA 6,000 0.0% (0)
Dr. Dhanajay India 500 0.0% (0)
Dr. Bryan Tyson & Dr. George Fareed USA 20,000 0.0% (6) 0.0% (4)
Dr. Raphael Furtado Brazil 170 0.6% (1) 0.0% (0)
Rabbi Yehoshua Gerzi Israel 860 0.1% (1) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Heather Gessling USA 1,500 0.1% (1)
Dr. Ellen Guimarães Brazil 500 1.6% (8) 0.4% (2)
Dr. Syed Haider USA 4,000 0.1% (5) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Mark Hancock USA 24 0.0% (0)
Dr. Sabine Hazan USA 1,000 0.0% (0)
Dr. Mollie James USA 3,500 1.1% (40) 0.0% (1)
Dr. Roberta Lacerda Brazil 550 1.5% (8) 0.4% (2)
Dr. Katarina Lindley USA 100 5.0% (5) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Ben Marble USA 150,000 0.0% (4)
Dr. Edimilson Migowski Brazil 2,000 0.3% (7) 0.1% (2)
Dr. Abdulrahman Mohana Saudi Arabia 2,733 0.0% (0)
Dr. Carlos Nigro Brazil 5,000 0.9% (45) 0.5% (23)
Dr. Benoit Ochs Luxembourg 800 0.0% (0)
Dr. Ortore Italy 240 1.2% (3) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Valerio Pascua
one patient already on oxygen died		 Honduras 415 6.3% (26) 0.2% (1)
Dr. Sebastian Pop Romania 300 0.0% (0)
Dr. Brian Proctor USA 869 2.3% (20) 0.2% (2)
Dr. Anastacio Queiroz Brazil 700 0.0% (0)
Dr. Didier Raoult France 8,315 2.6% (214) 0.1% (5)
Dr. Karin Ried
up to 99yo, 73% comorbidities		 Turkey 237 0.4% (1)
Dr. Roman Rozencwaig
patients up to 86 years old		 Canada 80 0.0% (0)
Dr. Vipul Shah India 8,000 0.1% (5)
Dr. Silvestre Sobrinho Brazil 116 8.6% (10) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Unknown Brazil 957 1.7% (16) 0.2% (2)
Dr. Vladimir Zelenko USA 2,200 0.5% (12) 0.1% (2)
Average 2.2% 0.1%
Physicians using early combined treatment protocols had much lower hospitalization and mortality rates compared with those following guidelines focusing on late treatment. Results are subject to selection and ascertainment bias and accurate analysis requires details of the patient populations and followup, however the results are consistent across many teams, and consistent with the extensive controlled clinical evidence showing a significant reduction in risk with many early treatments, and complementary/synergistic benefits with combined treatments. (*) Dr. Uip reportedly prescribed early treatment for himself, but not for patients1. (**) Dr. Scott reports treating hundreds of patients and losing over a hundred, but has not provided specific numbers2. Dr. Scott reports following (and helping create) US guidelines.
Eritoran
Saito
96 patient late treatment RCT: 26% higher mortality (p=0.69), 7% lower progression (p=1), and 1% improvement (p=0.99)
SNS812
Chen
90 patient early treatment RCT: 52% improved recovery (p=0.002), 45% greater improvement (p=0.01), 14% improved viral load (p=0.04), and 19% faster viral clearance (p=0.007)
Metformin
Rodríguez-Fernández
6,347 patients prophylaxis: 31% lower hospitalization (p=0.03) and 7% fewer cases (p=0.46)
Miscellaneous
Zhang
In vitro and in vivo study of a diarylamide clofoctol derivative, showing potent inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 replication by targeting host lipogenesis.
Bertoldi
Analysis of 3,098 children in Brazil showing higher use of effective low-cost treatments for more highly educated individuals and with higher income..
Du
Review of drug repurposing as a broad-spectrum antiviral strategy against coronaviruses, with a focus on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19. Authors systematically..
Ensitrelvir
Nakano
114 patient early treatment RCT: 4% faster recovery (p=0.84) and 28% improved viral load (p=0.0002)
Zinc
Hosseini
81 patient early treatment RCT: 52% lower hospitalization (p=0.38) and 42% improved recovery (p=0.13)
Selenium
Hosseini
81 patient early treatment RCT: 52% lower hospitalization (p=0.38) and 42% improved recovery (p=0.13)
Vitamin C
Hosseini
81 patient early treatment RCT: 52% lower hospitalization (p=0.38) and 42% improved recovery (p=0.13)
N-acetylcysteine
Jin
176 patients late treatment PSM: 59% lower mortality (p=0.17), 12% improvement (p=0.76), and 71% lower progression (p=0.01)
Paxlovid
How
In vitro study showing strong synergistic antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects with the combination of ivermectin and nirmatrelvir for RAW264.7..
Liu
Retrospective 1,219 hospitalized severe COVID-19 patients in China showing significantly lower 28-day mortality with paxlovid. This study has..
Ivermectin
How
In vitro study showing strong synergistic antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects with the combination of ivermectin and nirmatrelvir for RAW264.7..
Nigella Sativa
Kaseb
110 patient early treatment RCT: 60% lower progression (p=0.006), 42% lower long COVID (p=0.07), and 10% worse recovery (p=0.7)
Sleep
Papantoniou
1,939 patients: 29% lower long COVID (p=0.02)
Sotrovimab
Luxi
Disproportionality analysis of 15,250 de-duplicated individual case safety reports from VigiBase (February 2020-December 2023) identifying potential..
Regdanvimab
Luxi
Disproportionality analysis of 15,250 de-duplicated individual case safety reports from VigiBase (February 2020-December 2023) identifying potential..
Casirivimab/imdevimab
Luxi
Disproportionality analysis of 15,250 de-duplicated individual case safety reports from VigiBase (February 2020-December 2023) identifying potential..
Tixagevimab/cilgavimab
Luxi
Disproportionality analysis of 15,250 de-duplicated individual case safety reports from VigiBase (February 2020-December 2023) identifying potential..
Bamlanivimab/etesevimab
Luxi
Disproportionality analysis of 15,250 de-duplicated individual case safety reports from VigiBase (February 2020-December 2023) identifying potential..
Remdesivir
Khatun
Preclinical study (in vitro and mouse model) demonstrating synergistic antiviral efficacy of auranofin and GS-621763 (an oral prodrug of remdesivir)..
Sunlight
Stevenson
Non-COVID-19 retrospective ecological study using a time-stratified case-crossover design examining daily sunlight exposure and excess influenza..
GB-0669
Borriello
Phase 1 double-blind, placebo-controlled RCT of 51 healthy volunteers showing that GB-0669 - an AI-designed, half-life-extended monoclonal antibody..
Dexamethasone
Sines
429 patients late treatment: 8% lower mortality (p=0.56)
Recent studies (see the individual treatment pages for all studies):
Sep 11
 Rodríguez-Fernández et al., Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/s41598-026-68017-4 Metformin use and decreased risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes in a real-world case-control study
31% lower hospitalization (p=0.03) and 7% fewer cases (p=0.46). Population-based case-control study of 81,348 adults in Spain, showing lower risk of hospitalization with prior metformin use. The analysis among patients with type 2 diabetes may be the most reliable. The primary analysis compares metfor..
Sep 1
 Bunditanukul et al., Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research, doi:10.56499/jppres_14.5.2652 Aspirin use and clinical outcomes in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Systematic review and meta-analysis of 33 studies (5 RCTs and 28 observational studies, 187,224 participants). The RCT analysis (n=20,577) shows 5% lower mortality, without reaching statistical significance. Aspirin was associated with a ..
We aim to cover the most promising early treatments for COVID-19. We use pre-specified effect extraction criteria that prioritizes more serious outcomes, for details see methods. For specific outcomes and different treatment stages see the individual pages.
References